Anime History: Forged in Shadow, Exploding into Light
Anime didn’t just happen. It was forged – in flickering shadows and wartime propaganda, through the ashes of defeat and the electric hum of the television screen. It was dreamt into existence by artists battling impossible deadlines and fuelled by the raw passion of storytellers who refused to be ignored. This isn’t merely a history of Japanese cartoons. This is the century-long saga of a medium’s survival, rebellion, innovation, and eventual conquest of the global imagination. Prepare for an unprecedented deep dive into the turbulent, vibrant, and ongoing revolution that is anime.
Era I: Flickering Dreams – The Birth of Japanese Animation (Early 1900s – 1920s)
Earliest Fragments: While the exact “first” anime is debated, the earliest confirmed examples of Japanese animation date back to the early 20th century. A short filmstrip discovered in 2005, depicting a boy writing “活動写真” (katsudō shashin, “moving picture”) and bowing, is estimated to date from around 1907, though its creator remains unknown. This represents the nascent interest in the medium.
Pioneering Trio – The “Fathers” of Anime:
Oten Shimokawa (1892-1973): A political cartoonist and manga artist who worked for Tokyo Puck magazine. He was commissioned by Tenkatsu studio in 1916 and released Imokawa Mukuzo Genkanban no Maki (Mukuzo Imokawa the Doorman) in January 1917, often cited as the first professionally produced, publicly screened anime film. He primarily used blackboard drawing techniques.
Junichi Kouchi (1886-1970): Also a cartoonist and painter. He experimented with more advanced animation techniques for his time. His Namakura Gatana (The Dull Sword, or Hanawa Hekonai meitō no maki), released in mid-1917, is a comedic short about a samurai testing a new sword, notable for its relatively fluid movement for the era.
Seitaro Kitayama (1888-1945): Perhaps the most technically oriented of the three, Kitayama experimented with paper cutouts and later established his own studio, Kitayama Eiga Seisakujo. His work includes Urashima Tarō (1918), based on a famous folktale. He focused on creating animations for educational and commercial purposes.
Early Techniques & Influences: These pioneers worked largely independently, experimenting with various techniques like cutout animation, chalkboard animation, and limited cel animation (often drawing directly onto celluloid). They were influenced by imported Western animation (like French and American shorts) and traditional Japanese art forms like kage-e (shadow play) and emakimono (picture scrolls).
Challenges: Production was laborious, expensive, and faced competition from established foreign animation studios. The Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923 destroyed many early studios and films, making this era difficult to study comprehensively.
Era II: War’s Shadow & Celluloid Dreams – Anime’s Dark Apprenticeship (1930s – 1945)
Sound and Celluloid: The 1930s saw gradual advancements. Kenzō Masaoka produced Chikara to Onna no Yo no Naka (Within the World of Power and Women) in 1933, often cited as the first Japanese animated talkie (though pre-sound versions existed). Masaoka also pioneered the use of cel animation in Japan, moving away from cruder techniques.
Government Influence & Nationalism: As Japan moved towards militarism, animation increasingly became a tool for nationalistic messaging and propaganda. Educational films and shorts promoting national values or depicting historical/folkloric tales with a nationalistic slant became more common.
Feature-Length Ambitions: The war effort spurred investment in longer-form animation. Mitsuyo Seo, a student of Masaoka, directed Momotarō no Umiwashi (Momotaro’s Sea Eagles) in 1943, a 37-minute film depicting the attack on Pearl Harbor with anthropomorphic animals.
Momotarō: Umi no Shinpei (Momotaro’s Divine Sea Warriors, 1945): Directed again by Seo and sponsored by the Imperial Navy, this 74-minute film was Japan’s first feature-length anime. Released just before the war’s end, it depicted animal characters liberating Southeast Asia. While technically impressive for its time and resources, its propagandistic nature is undeniable. It showcased the potential of large-scale anime production, even under difficult circumstances, serving as a dark precursor to the industry’s future potential.
Era III: Rising from Ashes – Post-War Reconstruction & The Toei Dynasty (Late 1940s – 1950s)
Occupation & Western Influence: The Allied occupation (1945-1952) brought significant American cultural influence, including a flood of Disney films and other Western animation, which captivated Japanese audiences and creators alike. This period saw a temporary lull in domestic production as the industry rebuilt, absorbing new influences.
Nihon Dōga Sha & Toei’s Genesis: Studios began to re-emerge. Nihon Dōga Sha (Japan Animated Films), founded in 1948 by Kenzō Masaoka and Sanae Yamamoto, was a key player. It was later purchased by the Toei Company in 1956 and rebranded as Toei Dōga (now Toei Animation).
Toei Doga – The “Disney of the East”: Toei Dōga became the dominant force, explicitly aiming to emulate Disney’s success with high-quality, feature-length animated films. They established a structured studio system, hiring and training a large number of animators who would later become influential figures, creating a powerhouse that would define the era.
Hakujaden (The Tale of the White Serpent, 1958): Toei’s first feature film and Japan’s first color anime feature. Based on a Chinese folktale, it was a major technical and artistic achievement, signaling the rebirth and ambition of the Japanese animation industry. It was also one of the first anime films exported internationally (released in the US as Panda and the Magic Serpent), planting the earliest seeds of global awareness.
Establishing a Style: Toei’s early features (Shōnen Sarutobi Sasuke, Saiyūki / Alakazam the Great) established a certain aesthetic – often based on folklore or literature, featuring appealing character designs and relatively full animation for the time. They laid the groundwork for a generation of animators, including future legends like Hayao Miyazaki and Isao Takahata, who both joined Toei in the late 50s/early 60s, learning their craft within the burgeoning giant.
Era IV: The Electric Dream – Tezuka, Television, and the 1960s Revolution
The Catalyst: Osamu Tezuka: Often hailed as the “God of Manga” and “Father of Anime,” Osamu Tezuka (1928-1989) was a prolific manga artist deeply inspired by Disney and Max Fleischer. He saw the potential for animation on the burgeoning medium of television but knew feature film budgets and schedules were unsustainable. His vision would ignite a revolution.
Mushi Productions & Limited Animation: Tezuka founded his own studio, Mushi Productions, in 1961. To make anime viable for weekly TV broadcast, he championed limited animation techniques – reducing the number of frames drawn per second, using held cels, camera pans, simplified character designs, and focusing movement only where essential. This pragmatic innovation drastically cut costs and production time, making the impossible possible.
Tetsuwan Atom (Astro Boy, 1963): Based on Tezuka’s popular manga, Astro Boy premiered on Fuji TV on January 1, 1963. It was a monumental success. Its appealing hero, sci-fi themes, and groundbreaking (though limited) animation captivated audiences. Crucially, it proved that anime could be a commercially successful weekly television series. It established many conventions: adaptation from manga, merchandising tie-ins, and the 30-minute (including commercials) episode format. It was also successfully exported to the US, becoming an early ambassador.
The Manga-Anime Sibling Bond: Astro Boy’s success cemented a crucial relationship that defines much of anime history. Manga provided a vast, readily available source of stories and characters with proven appeal, perfectly suited for episodic adaptation. In turn, anime became powerful advertising for manga, driving sales sky-high. This symbiotic “media mix” strategy became foundational. Early TV anime often directly adapted manga panel layouts and visual language, creating a unique aesthetic rhythm distinct from Western animation, further intertwining the two forms. They grew up together, shaping each other’s evolution.
The Floodgates Open: Astro Boy’s success triggered a boom. Other studios quickly followed suit:
TCJ (Television Corporation of Japan, later Eiken): Produced Tetsujin 28-gō (Gigantor) in 1963, another early mecha hit.
Toei Doga: Entered the TV market with series like Ōkami Shōnen Ken (Wolf Boy Ken, 1963). They also produced early influential magical girl (mahō shōjo) series like Mahōtsukai Sally (Sally the Witch, 1966) and sports (supokon) anime like Kyojin no Hoshi (Star of the Giants, 1968).
Tokyo Movie Shinsha (TMS Entertainment): Founded in 1964, TMS quickly became a major player with hits like Obake no Q-Tarō (1965) and the iconic Lupin III (starting 1971, but rooted in the late 60s manga).
Early Genre Seeds: While often simple by today’s standards, 60s TV anime laid the groundwork for many core genres: sci-fi/mecha, magical girl, sports, comedy, and adventure series based on manga, planting the seeds for future diversification.
Era V: Expanding Worlds – Genre Diversification and the Rise of Auteurs (1970s)
Expanding Horizons: The 1970s saw anime move beyond children’s programming, exploring more complex themes, targeting older audiences (shonen, shojo, and even early seinen), and solidifying distinct genres. The medium was growing up.
The Mecha Boom: Go Nagai’s Mazinger Z (1972, Toei) revolutionized the mecha genre by introducing the concept of a pilot inside a giant robot. This sparked a wave of “Super Robot” shows. Later, Yoshiyuki Tomino’s Mobile Suit Gundam (1979, Sunrise) introduced the “Real Robot” subgenre, featuring more realistic military sci-fi, complex characters, political intrigue, and treating robots as weapons of war. Gundam’s initial low ratings masked its eventual massive cultural impact and franchise potential, changing sci-fi anime forever.
Shojo Flourishes: Dedicated shojo anime gained prominence, often adapting popular manga. Key titles include:
Ribbon no Kishi (Princess Knight, 1967-68, Mushi Pro – Tezuka’s earlier work bridging into the 70s influence).
Ace o Nerae! (Aim for the Ace!, 1973, TMS) – A hugely influential tennis/sports drama.
Rose of Versailles (1979, TMS) – A historical drama set before and during the French Revolution, known for its complex characters, androgynous protagonist Oscar, and mature themes. It was a landmark series directed by Osamu Dezaki and Tadao Nagahama.
Sports Dramas (Supokon): Following Kyojin no Hoshi, gritty sports dramas became popular, focusing on intense training, rivalry, and perseverance. Ashita no Joe (Tomorrow’s Joe, 1970, Mushi Pro), a boxing anime, became a cultural phenomenon known for its dark themes and iconic ending.
World Masterpiece Theater (WMT): Nippon Animation produced this long-running series (starting formally in 1975, but with precursors like Heidi, Girl of the Alps in 1974) adapting classic children’s literature from around the world (Anne of Green Gables, A Dog of Flanders, 3000 Leagues in Search of Mother). These productions were notable for their high quality and often featured early work by Hayao Miyazaki and Isao Takahata after they left Toei.
Emergence of Key Directors: The era saw the rise of visionary directors who would shape the medium’s future:
Hayao Miyazaki & Isao Takahata: After leaving Toei, they worked on various projects, including Lupin III Part I (Takahata directing, Miyazaki scene planning/key animation), Panda! Go, Panda! (directed by Takahata, written by Miyazaki), and several WMT series. Their collaboration and distinct styles were becoming evident. Miyazaki directed his first feature film, Lupin III: The Castle of Cagliostro (1979, TMS), showcasing his signature visual flair and adventurous storytelling.
Osamu Dezaki: Known for his distinctive visual style (split screens, “postcard memories” freeze frames), he directed influential series like Ashita no Joe, Ace o Nerae!, and Rose of Versailles.
Yoshiyuki Tomino: Became famous for Mobile Suit Gundam, known for his complex narratives and often bleak outlook (“Kill ’em all Tomino”).
The “Anime Boom”: By the late 70s, anime was firmly established in Japanese popular culture, with dedicated magazines (like Animage, founded 1978), fan clubs (the seeds of modern fandom), and growing critical discussion. Anime wasn’t just entertainment; it was becoming culture.
Era VI: The Golden Age Dawns – OVAs, Ghibli, and Whispers Across the Pacific (1980s)
The OVA Revolution (Original Video Animation): Starting with Dallos (1983, Studio Pierrot), the direct-to-video market exploded. OVAs bypassed TV censorship and scheduling constraints, unleashing a wave of creativity:
Higher Production Values: Often featuring budgets closer to films than TV episodes.
Creative Freedom: Exploring niche genres, experimental animation, and more mature/violent/sexual content unsuitable for broadcast.
Shorter Runtimes: Telling self-contained stories or short series without the need to sustain a long TV run.
Landmark OVAs include Megazone 23 (1985), Bubblegum Crisis (1987), Gunbuster (1988), and Patlabor: The Early Days (1988). The OVA market proved anime could thrive outside television.
Feature Film Renaissance: The 80s saw a surge in ambitious and influential anime films that redefined artistic expectations:
Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984): Directed by Hayao Miyazaki and produced by Isao Takahata (based on Miyazaki’s manga), its critical and commercial success directly led to the formation of Studio Ghibli, a name that would become synonymous with animation excellence.
Studio Ghibli’s Founding (1985): Established by Miyazaki, Takahata, and producer Toshio Suzuki with funding from Tokuma Shoten publishing. Their subsequent films like Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), My Neighbor Totoro (1988), and Grave of the Fireflies (1988 – directed by Takahata) cemented their reputation for unparalleled artistry, emotional depth, and imaginative worlds.
Akira (1988): Directed by Katsuhiro Otomo based on his manga. A cyberpunk epic with groundbreaking animation quality, complex themes, and a staggering budget. While not a huge hit initially in Japan, its international release had a profound impact on Western perceptions of anime, showcasing its potential for mature, visually spectacular storytelling to a generation of viewers.
Iconic TV Series: Television continued to thrive with generation-defining hits:
Rumiko Takahashi’s Hits: Urusei Yatsura (1981) and Maison Ikkoku (1986) defined romantic comedy anime.
Shonen Powerhouses: Dr. Slump (1981), Fist of the North Star (1984), Dragon Ball (1986), and Saint Seiya (1986) became massive hits, defining the action-adventure shonen template for years to come.
Mecha Evolution: Super Dimension Fortress Macross (1982) blended mecha action with idol romance and music, becoming a cultural touchstone. The “Real Robot” genre continued with Gundam sequels (Zeta Gundam, 1985) and new franchises like Armored Trooper Votoms (1983).
Early International Exposure: While still niche, anime gained more visibility overseas, often through heavily edited adaptations like Robotech (1985, combining Macross, Southern Cross, and Mospeada) and Voltron (1984, combining GoLion and Dairugger XV). These localized versions, though often altered, introduced countless Western viewers to the medium. Films like Akira and Ghibli releases also began circulating on VHS among enthusiasts, building underground fandoms.
Era VII: The World Awakens – Global Explosion and the Digital Frontier (1990s)
“Cool Japan” Goes Global: The 1990s marked the period when anime truly broke through into mainstream international consciousness. It wasn’t just imported; it exploded. Several factors contributed:
Blockbuster Franchises: Series like Dragon Ball Z (building on the 80s original), Sailor Moon, and later Pokémon became global phenomena, captivating young audiences worldwide through television syndication and massive merchandising campaigns. These weren’t just shows; they were cultural events.
Critically Acclaimed Films: Films like Ghost in the Shell (1995, Mamoru Oshii), Princess Mononoke (1997, Miyazaki/Ghibli – a massive domestic hit that raised Ghibli’s international profile significantly), and Perfect Blue (1997, Satoshi Kon) garnered critical acclaim and heavily influenced Western filmmakers, proving anime’s artistic depth.
Cult TV Hits & The Rise of Niche: Neon Genesis Evangelion (1995, Gainax) became a cultural phenomenon in Japan and a highly influential cult classic internationally, known for its deconstruction of mecha tropes, psychological depth, and controversial ending. Alongside mainstream hits, influential niche series like Cowboy Bebop (1998), Trigun (1998), and Serial Experiments Lain (1998) found devoted followings, showcasing anime’s thematic range beyond action and fantasy.
Increased Availability & Toonami’s Impact: More anime was licensed and dubbed (or subtitled) for Western markets on VHS. Crucially, broadcast blocks like Cartoon Network’s Toonami in the US became immensely influential, curating a lineup of action-oriented anime (DBZ, Gundam Wing, Sailor Moon) and introducing the medium to an entire generation outside Japan, normalizing it as cool, exciting television.
The Shift to Digital: The industry began transitioning from traditional cel animation to digital ink, paint, and compositing.
Early Experiments: Studios experimented with CGI integration in the late 80s/early 90s.
Widespread Adoption: By the mid-to-late 90s, digital processes became standard for most TV anime and many films (e.g., Princess Mononoke blended cel and digital effectively). This offered new visual possibilities (complex effects, smoother integration of 3D) but also changed workflows and sparked debates about losing the “handcrafted” feel.
Late-Night Anime: The rise of late-night broadcast slots in Japan allowed for more anime targeting mature audiences (seinen and josei demographics), featuring more complex themes, violence, or sexual content unsuitable for daytime viewing. This became a crucial space for experimentation and niche genres that couldn’t air earlier.
Era VIII: The Networked Age – Streaming, Moe, and Infinite Niches (2000s)
The Internet’s Impact: The rise of broadband internet profoundly changed anime consumption and fandom:
Fansubbing: Digital fansubbing (fan-created subtitles) exploded, making vast amounts of anime (especially niche or unlicensed titles) accessible globally almost immediately after Japanese broadcast. While legally grey, it fostered huge international fan communities and demonstrated massive unmet demand.
Online Communities: Forums (like AnimeSuki), blogs, and early social media became hubs for discussion, information sharing, recommendations, and vibrant fandom activity.
Legal Streaming Emerges: Recognizing the demand shown by fansubbing, companies like Crunchyroll (initially a fansub aggregator, later transitioning to legal streaming around 2009) and Funimation began licensing anime for legitimate online distribution, pioneering the simulcast model (episodes available shortly after Japan broadcast). This began to legitimize and monetize the global online audience.
Adult Swim & Mainstream Cool: In the West, blocks like Adult Swim further cemented anime’s place in mature animation, showcasing stylish and often unconventional series (Cowboy Bebop, FLCL, Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex) to an older audience, associating anime with late-night cool and alternative culture.
The “Moe” Phenomenon: A significant trend in the 2000s was the rise of “moe” – characterized by affection towards cute, often idealized (usually female) characters embodying specific archetypes. Series like The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya (2006, Kyoto Animation), Lucky Star (2007, Kyoto Animation), and K-On! (2009, Kyoto Animation) were hugely popular and influential in popularizing moe aesthetics and slice-of-life narratives focused on character interactions. This trend was sometimes criticized for prioritizing character appeal over plot but undeniably shaped a large segment of the market.
Dominance of Late-Night & Light Novel Adaptations: The late-night anime market continued to grow, becoming the primary space for new TV series. Adaptations of light novels (serialized young adult fiction) became increasingly common, alongside manga adaptations, leading to trends like the proliferation of isekai (transported to another world) stories towards the end of the decade.
Key Studios and Works: The 2000s saw established studios continue and new powerhouses emerge:
- Kyoto Animation: Became renowned for high-quality animation and popular slice-of-life/moe series.
- Shaft: Gained attention for its unique visual style under director Akiyuki Shinbo (Sayonara Zetsubou Sensei, Bakemonogatari).
- Bones: Produced acclaimed action series like Fullmetal Alchemist (2003 and the more faithful Brotherhood in 2009) and Eureka Seven (2005).
- Madhouse: Continued producing diverse works, including Satoshi Kon’s remaining films (Millennium Actress, Tokyo Godfathers, Paprika) and hit series like Death Note (2006) and Black Lagoon (2006).
- Sunrise: Continued its Gundam franchise and produced hits like Code Geass (2006).
- Toei Animation: Continued its prolific output, with its series One Piece being a notable example that actually began airing in late 1999 before its popularity massively surged globally throughout the 2000s, becoming a defining work for a generation of fans.
Continued Global Growth: Anime conventions grew larger, international licensing became more robust, and anime aesthetics continued to influence Western media, solidifying its global cultural footprint.
Era IX: Infinite Horizons – Streaming Wars, Global Integration, and the Unwritten Future (2010s – Present)
Streaming Takes Over: Legal streaming platforms (Crunchyroll, Funimation, Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, HIDIVE, etc.) became the dominant way most international fans access new anime. Simulcasting is now standard practice for popular shows, creating a truly global, simultaneous viewing experience.
Platform Investment & The Streaming Wars: Major platforms like Netflix and later Sony (acquiring Crunchyroll/Funimation) began investing heavily not just in licensing but in funding exclusive anime “Originals,” sometimes bypassing traditional production committees. This brought massive global visibility and bigger budgets but also raised concerns about curation, exclusivity fragmenting the market, and potential homogenization pressures. Anime became a key battleground in the global streaming wars.
High-Budget Blockbusters: The decade saw the rise of globally massive multimedia franchises driven by visually spectacular adaptations, often from popular manga: Attack on Titan (2013), One-Punch Man (2015), My Hero Academia (2016), Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba (2019 – whose film became the highest-grossing Japanese film ever), Jujutsu Kaisen (2020). These series achieved mainstream recognition on an unprecedented scale.
Genre Diversification Continues: While shonen action and isekai remain popular pillars, the market supports a vast range of genres appealing to diverse tastes, including sophisticated dramas (Showa Genroku Rakugo Shinju), beloved sports anime (Haikyu!!), unique comedies (Pop Team Epic), critically acclaimed character studies (Vinland Saga), and artistic films achieving mainstream success (Your Name, A Silent Voice).
Web Manga & International Influences: Adaptations of web manga (from Japan) and manhwa/webtoons (primarily Korean comics optimized for vertical scrolling) became increasingly common, fueled by global digital platforms. There’s also growing, though still developing, international co-production and cross-pollination of styles and narratives.
Industry Challenges: Despite global success, the anime industry continues to face significant challenges: notoriously low pay and harsh working conditions for many animators remain systemic issues, production bottlenecks persist, reliance on outsourcing raises quality control concerns, and ongoing debates about creative sustainability and the impact of AI loom large.
The Future is Unwritten: Anime remains a dynamic and relentlessly evolving medium. Trends like the increasing sophistication and use of 3D CGI (both integrated and full), the influence of virtual YouTubers (VTubers) on character design and promotion, experiments with AI in production, and the ever-shifting landscape of global streaming platforms and corporate investment suggest that anime’s history is still very much being written. Its next transformation is always just around the corner.
and Oshi no Ko
This century-long journey – from flickering hand-drawn experiments to globally streamed digital epics – covers the major transformations in anime’s history. It’s a story of resilience, adaptation, artistic ambition, and the undeniable power of animation to capture the human spirit. From humble beginnings, facing earthquakes, war, and economic hardship, Japanese animation has consistently innovated, adapted, and ultimately blossomed into a global cultural force, reflecting both Japanese society and captivating audiences worldwide.
But the story isn’t finished. The ink is still wet on the pages of anime’s next chapter. As technology evolves, as global cultures continue to blend, as new generations of creators pick up the pen and the stylus, the definition and potential of anime will continue to expand in ways we can barely imagine. The history is rich, the present is vibrant, and the future remains an infinite, exciting canvas. Perhaps the next masterpiece, the next revolution, is already taking shape.